Amphibians include salamanders, newts, frogs and toads. They need special care and a big investment in equipment if you keep non-native species. Even if you do invest a lot, many exotic amphibians kept by enthusiasts don't survive long, which is sad when amphibians all over the world are threatened by disease, pollution and loss of habitat. Yet you could do amphibians a favour by setting up a pond for our native species to colonise. It's much less effort, and far more beneficial for amphibians worldwide than keeping an exotic in a tank. .

Amphibian behaviour

Most of us are familar with croaking frogs during the mating season, when males sing to attract females. This is the time when you're most likely to see adult amphibians in a group, though some aquatic species, like clawed frogs and axolotls do live together in the wild. Generally, amphibians don't do much parenting, leaving the eggs after spawning, though some salamander species stay to guard the egs, in some species the female, and sometimes the male.There's also the well-known midwife toad, which swims around with eggs attached.

Tadpoles generally don't eat one another, though this can happen in some species. Keeping tadpoles well fed, and in groups sorted by size helps to reduce the risk of cannibalism if you have a species known for eating its companions.

So, how do frogs and toads find their ponds to breed? They seem to do this using their sense of smell. They also have a keen sense of hearing. If you walk past a croaking pond at night, you'll hear the frogs plopping into the water. Amphibians that come onto land can be very stressed by loud noises, so they need a quiet environment. Fully aquatic amphibians are less stressed by noise.

Amphibians orient themselves especially through smell and vision, and they tend to find transparent glass walls confusing and stressful. They may be so stressed by four sides of cear glass that they don't eat. You can paint three sides of the tank dark green, grey or black, with some texture, so the amphibians feel safer. You can also line three sides of tanks for arboreal amphibians, (tree frogs), with bark, or some other attractive material. Lining three sides means that you can still see the amphibians, and they feel more protected.

Food, for an adult amphibian, is something that's alive and moves, and the easiest way to feed non-native species is to buy live mealworms. You can dig up worms from the garden, though there's more risk of introducing an infection into the tank. Worms are quite acceptable for native species in ponds.

Skin is a sense organ in humans, and far more so in amphibians, which can 'smell' through their skins. They're also more sensitive than we are to the temperature of whatever their skin is in contact with, and more at risk from dehydration if they don't have access to water or humid conditions. Amphibians 'drink' through their skins rather than through their mouths.

It's difficult to imagine what it's like to be an amphibian, with such very sensitive skin, the ability to find locations through smell alone, and an immediate alert response to footsteps. Amphibians are both predators, and prey animals, so need to stay alert. Some people use leaves, branches, bark and stones for environmental enrichment for amphibians that spend time on land. Maybe this helps to prevent boredom, but the first priority is for the amphibian to feel safe. If it's very stressed out by noise or the wrong temperature, it's unlikely to eat, let alone breed. Simple measures to reduce stress, such as using quiet shoes and mats in an amphibian room may help more than items to make the cage interesting. Likewise, native species benefit from a quiet location for a pond, with plenty of shady places nearby.

Providing a haven for native species of amphibians

Many of us have early experiences of taking home frog spawn as children, and watching the frogs develop. Some survived, others didn't, and they hopped off into the garden to be forgotten. Our early efforts as amphibian keepers perhaps tended to be a bit haphazard. Sheltering amphibians can, however, help our native European species of frogs, toads and newts, which are under threat from pollutants, traffic, and loss of habitat. People with garden ponds can help their survival enormously, and do themselves a favour, because amphibians consume the gardener's enemy, slugs.

Amphibians need a fish-free pond, because fish may eat small tadpoles, while frogs can grasp fish tightly in the mating season, so you need two ponds if you like fish, keeping the fish and frogs separate. If you don't have a pond, or don't have a second pond for amphibians, it's quite easy to set one up.

The best type of pond is one with curves and different water depths, though if you improvise, using an old bath, for example, you can create different depths using rocks. Rain water is preferable to tap water, even though chlorine does evaporate over time. You can use rocks to secure native plant species, both for shelter, and to oxygenate the water. Froglets and newts are also helped if they have an improvised 'ramp' to get out of the pond - you can heap stones in one end of the pond, for example. Using plants to provide shelter round the pond gives it a more natural look than having it bordered with slabs, and gives newly emerged amphibians more of a chance of survival.

Amphibians need damp when they're on land, so they'll be encouraged if you have plenty of shady spots in your garden. They like compost heaps, because food (slugs and worms) lives there, and small log piles, which can also give shelter and attract food. Amphibians sometimes hibernate in heaps of stone, and you can set up a heap covered with soil, and planted with grass, that they can burrow into.

Amphibians benefit from 'eco-friendly' gardening practices, because they're so sensitive to pollutants. Pestcides and herbicides can kill them, and fertilisers, including manure, can upset the balance in the pool. If you use fertilisers, it's best used away from the pool, with no chance for run-off into the water. Amphibians also do best in traffic-free and quiet areas, because frogs and toads especially regularly get run over in their quest to return to where they grew up, during the breeding season.

Ponds need attention in the autumn, especially if they're near trees, and leaves fall onto the pond. You can remove the leaves regularly with a net, so they don't rot in the pond. Change the water gradually, because sudden changes in the temperature or composition of the water can affect any amphibians living in the pond. In winter, when ponds can freeze over, and snow can fall on the ice, it's important to allow sunlight to get through, or any amphibians in the pond could be killed. You can place something warm on the ice to melt it, or keep something floating which is easy to remove, and create a hole.

Taking frog spawn from the wild is not a good conservation measure! There are also risks of introducing infections if you transfer spawn from somewhere else, even a friend with an overabundance of spawn. If you can time your pond construction to let your pond stand for at least a couple of months before the spawning season, it's likely that amphibians will find it of their own accord. Timing the pond construction well allows the pond to be colonised by small creatures like water fleas, which will be ready as food when your amphibians arrive.

Choosing non-native species of amphibians

Outdoor ponds are best reserved for native species, because of the risk of non-native species escaping into the wild. It's illegal to release exotic species into the UK, because of the risk of introducing diseases, or potential predators, which might harm native species.

It's safest to start off with the relatively easy species, which tend to come from temperate zones, so you don't have to worry so much about temperature. Make sure your specimen is healthy, which means having clear eyes, being neither skinny nor bloated, with no injuries or other visible problems on the skin. It's safer not to mix species in the same vivarium or aquarium, since they don't always get on. Check to see whether the species you are thinking about is best kept in small groups, in pairs or singly.

Read up on what you can about different species' natural environments before you make a choice, so you know which are easier in terms of recreating their habitats, and what to aim for when you set up your tank or vivarium. The temperature of the room where you keep amphibians will affect any species which leaves the water, so it's safer to stick to amphibians with temperature requirements that are the same or very similar.

Environment and housing

Amphibians that spend time on land are particularly affected by what's happening in the room where their tank is kept. The air quality of the room where you house your amphibians will affect the air quality in tanks, so many people reserve a room solely for their amphibians. The room needs to be well-ventilated, with special attention to air purity. This means avoiding pollution from, say, smoking or using spray cleaning products. Vibration and noises that reach the room will also affect the amphibians. You can wear 'quiet' shoes, like trainers, in the amphibian room, and use mats, so that footsteps make less noise. It's also worth wearing quiet footwear in the whole of your house or flat, if sound carries a lot to your amphibian room

Amphibians need special attention paid to their housing, because of their sensitivity to pollutants, and to poor water quality generally, and this applies to amphibians on land, as well as in water, since amphibians can absorb pollutants through their skin. Their habitat can deteriorate very fast if it's too small. The first rule is to get as big a tank as you can afford, at least 10 gallons for tree frogs, for example. Ensure that the tank is big enough if you have a group. Though some amphibians can tolerate quite crowded conditions, water quality can deteriorate fast if they are too crowded, and land areas are likely to become foul much faster.

You can divide amphibians up into those that live in trees (arboreal), those that live mainly on land (semi-terrestrial, which tend to come from warmer climates), the semi-aquatic, which spend time in both land and water, and are the most common, and the aquatic, which live in water. Amphibians that come onto land don't drink, but absorb water through their skin, so humidity levels are important.

Arboreal amphibians, like tree frogs, like to climb, so they need tall tanks, and of course the lid should be secure. You can put sterilized potting compost, bark, and potted plants, and branches in a terrestrial amphibian's tank. Flower pots on their sides can also make good hiding places. Make sure the humidity level is kept high by spraying with tepid water, and give your amphibians a dish of water as well. Leave water you use for spraying or drinking in a dish to stand overnight, to let the chlorine evaporate. You can also buy dechlorinating products. Wash anything you put in the tank, and dry it thoroughly, and be careful about introducing anything that could be contaminated with solvents or detergents.

Semi-aquatic amphibians need access to both water and land. You can divide a tank with plexiglas to create a land and a water area, or ensure that there are enough rocks and small stones for the amphibians to be able to come out of the water onto a land area. Aquarium gravel is easily cleaned, so is suitable for the water area, and water plants can be planted in the gravel. The amphibian has to be able to leave the water area easily using a 'ramp', which you can make from rocks. Either clean the whole tank thoroughly, or keep the land side dry and ensure the water side is kept clean. You can plant your land area as with a terrestrial tank, if you keep this separate from the water area. This type of tank also needs a lid. Semi-terrestrial species need more land area than semi-aquatic amphibians, following the same basic principles.

The last type of amphibians are members of the aquatic species, which need a large aquarium which is wide rather than tall. You can use washed aquarium gravel sloping upwards towards the back, so you see them better. The inhabitants will benefit from aquatic plants, which can be bought bought from aquatic specialists and may need to be replaced regularly.

Amphibians also vary according to how much heat they need. Those that come from temperate climates may not need special heating, if temperatures in your home are similar to those found in their native habitats. Amphibians from tropical and semi-tropical habitats do need additional heating, especially if it gets very cold at night where you live. You can use a submersible aquarium water heater to warm the water. This also raises humidity levels due to evaporation. Lighting can be used to heat land areas, or you can use undertank heating pads, or try heat lamps, but with care, because otherwise heat lamps can roast your amphibians and kill the plants.

You need both warmer and cooler areas in the tank, so that your amphibians can find the right temperature by moving into the warmer part if they're a bit chilly, and into the cooler part if they feel too hot. Keep your tank out of direct sunlight to prevent overheating, and turn lights off at night, both for cooling, and to mimic natural light patterns. It's usually cooler at night in the wild than it is in the daytime, and you can mimic this in the tank - keeping the light off at night means the temperature drops, and you can keep a check on this with the thermometer to make sure it doesn't drop too far. Reading up on the area where your amphibian comes from will help you judge temperature ranges, both summer and winter, and night-day differences. Amphibians from cold parts of the world hibernate, and those from hot, dry parts of the world may estivate, to escape the sun. Estivation is similar to hiberation, except it happens in summer. Temperature control affects whether or not they do this in captivity.

Lighting is important for many reasons, not just to allow you to see your amphibians. It's important for their body clocks, and nocturnal amphibians can be upset by light at night. The floor of a vivarium should be dark, never lit from below, and shade, rather than shelter is important. Seasonal variations help encourage amphibians to breed. You need to work out the lighting times in the region they came from, remembering that there's less difference in the tropics than in temperate zones, and then set an automatic timer. Use a broad-spectrum light, and make sure your amphibians can't get too near the bulb, using a mesh barrier.

Your amphibians also need some ventilation to prevent the air inside the tank from getting stinky, and help control the proliferation of organisms in the water and land areas. You can use mesh to ensure that climbing amphibians don't escape, or drill holes. Use an aquarium aerator in the water - you just need a simple one with airstone bubling into the water. This helps to keep the water sweet, and helps make the tank more humid. Aquatic and semi-aquatic species also need a water filter, to keep the water clean. Ask at your aquatic store for the correct size and type for the amount of water you need to filter. Tadpoles can be trapped by filters, so you need fine mesh to prevent this happening.

Keeping a vivarium clean is very important to prevent disease, otherwise rotting food and droppings will build up and pose a health risk. Some people use a tray for the dry part of the vivarium, so this can be emptied and refilled.

Feeding

Generally, amphibians are carnivorous and like to eat live prey. They tend to ignore 'dead food', which can just end up making the water foul. Give as wide a variety of food as possible, and be careful about overfeeding, because of risks from rotting food. Amphibians don't need to be fed every day, being fed as much as they can eat three times a week is enough. Always remove uneaten food. Make sure the food isn't dangerous - carnivores such as dragon fly larvae can kill smaller amphibians, for instance. Some amphibian keepers like to use vitamin and calcium supplements, but these are less necessary if you provide a wide range of food.

You can find food in your garden, and in ponds, so long as you match the size of food to the diner. Water fleas can provide a tasty bite for tiny amphibian larvae, while larger amphibians may be partial to mealworms, earthworms, millipedes and beetles. Tree frogs eat a variety of insects, while salamanders like mealworms, earthworms, aphids, small moths and other insects. Terrestrial amphibians of course will tend to favour insects found out of water such as crickets, while aquatic species tend to catch prey that swims, such as insect larvae and crustaceans, but generally they are quite flexible - if it moves and they can catch it, they eat it!

Toads are especially partial to mealworms and wormy creatures in general. You can offer mealworms to toads and some other amphibians so they associate your hand with food, and are less stressed when you put your hand in the tank.

Tadpoles are usually herbivorous, and can be fed fish food until the start to change, when they can be given small prey, like mosquito larvae. Remove uneaten fish food so it doesn't sink and pollute the water.

Health

The main ways to prevent health problems are to start out with healthy specimens, provide the right habitat and food, keep the tank clean, be careful about pollutants such as detergents, and ensure that you have the right temperature for the species you keep. Amphibians are prone to fungal infections, and removing uneaten food before it rots helps reduce risks. They can also harbour nematodes, which can make humans ill as well as amphibians, another reason for good hygiene.

Give new specimens peace and quiet at first, since they're likely to be stressed and more likely to injure themselves when you first acquire them. It helps to quarantine new animals for at least a fortnight, and to.have a 'hospital tank' to isolate sick specimens, such as those showing signs of lethargy, bloat, or inflammation. Vets often have little or no experience of treating amphibians, so you may need to phone around to find a good vet, and read up on amphibian ailments yourself, especially if you start to accumulate a lot of specimens.

Amphibians from species that hibernate seem to benefit from this in terms of general health. They will bury themselves out of sight, re-emerging later. Ensure that amphibians have a good weight before letting them hibernate. Check the temperature range you need to provide to encourage different species to hibernate - here again, reading up on the natural environment your amphibian comes from will help you.

Not eating can be a sign of stress or ill health, but most amphibians tend to eat more in summer and autumn, especially if they hibernate, cutting down and then hibernating once the temperature has dropped enough.

Handling

Basically, try to handle amphibians as little as possible. You can use a fish net to catch them and transport them short distances. Be very careful they don't fall or jump out of your hands if you do pick them up, or they could be injured. It's safer, where possible, to coax them into a small container, and close the container before taking it out of the tank.

You need to wash your hands if you have to pick them up, both before and after. By washing before, you reduce the chances of anything on your hands damaging the amphibian. By washing after, you help protect yourself against irritants and infections. Check whether the species you handle has a propensity to secrete toxins, and think about wearing surgical gloves. You can transport terrestrial and semi-aquatic amphibians in a box with something damp inside, like moss, while aquatic species can be transported in the same way as fish.

Breeding

Habitat is an important factor in breeding - you need to recreate a sense of seasons passing to encourage your amphibians to breed. This is done by varying the hours of light you provide to match the light periods in the amphibian's natural environment. Amphibians from hibernating species also breed more freely if they are allowed to hibernate, so it's worth letting them do this just to have the chance to see your specimens through their full life cycle.

Most amphibians don't provide parental care, so the adults should be removed once the eggs have been laid - exceptions include some salamanders, and the Midwife Toad. Tadpoles can stand quite crowded conditions, but they tend to grow less at high densities. Changing the water three or four times a week helps growth, and helps keep the water clean.

Reptiles and amphibians: tortoises, terrapins and turtles

See also:

Tortoises, terrapins and turtles, also called chelonians, are long-lived reptiles characterised by their protective shells, which often have beautiful carapaces, or upper parts. Their shells have long been admired by humans, and this can be the chelonian's undoing, since some humans value the shell more than the live animal. The carapace and plastron (lower part of the shell) allow the chelonian to hide from predators, so it can escape without having to run.

Mediterranean tortoises were once imported in large numbers and left to roam free in British gardens, where they didn't always survive the winter. They're now rarer and are valued more, so the standard of care has improved. Tortoises may not be as high-maintenance as some reptiles, but still need careful looking after, especially when they come up to hibernation. Aquatic and semi-aquatic chelonians are more high-maintenance, and particular care is needed to ensure that their water is clean and at the right temperature.

Tortoises can live longer than most humans, while red-eared terrapins can live for 30 years, but both are relatively easy to rehome compared to some reptiles, such as large snakes and lizards! The main concern when choosing a specimen is to find one that is healthy, old enough to survive without special nursing, and which has not been caught in the wild. Reputable reptile specialists are the safest bet for buying healthy chelonians, or you could try a fellow reptile enthusiast whom you can trust. Reputable specialists can also provide advice on whether a particular species is suitable for you, and on care and equipment.

Chelonian behaviour

Perhaps the best-known characteristic of chelonians is their habit of withdrawing into their shells when they feel threatened. This tends to deter animals that might want to eat them, so chelonians don't have to run fast to get away, and tend to be slow moving. They're also mostly vegetarian, so don't need to chase prey, though some aquatic species are carnivores, and can snap fast.

Chelonians tend not to parent their offspring, and most are solitary animals. However, research on red-footed tortoises has shown that they can learn how to perform a task by watching another tortoise, which is a curious talent in a solitary animal that normally lives alone. The research was carried out by a team led by Anna Wilkinson, who also discovered that red-foorws tortoises aren't affected by contagious yawning in the way that humans, and other social species are. This study won her an Ig prize for improbable research.

Chelonians 'think' better when it's warmer, and slow down in both movement and their ability to react to what's happening around them when it's too cold for them. If you think your chelonian is too slow, check that you're providing enough warmth.

Housing and environment

Chelonians are cold-blooded, so they cannot regulate their temperatures except by moving to somewhere where it's warmer or cooler. Most species kept as pets come from areas with warm climates, so they need heating, if only in the colder months, from a heat pad and/or other source. They also benefit from temperature variations so that it's cooler at night, as happens in the wild, and they need access to sunlight and/or have special lamps. Species from tropical and semi-tropical climates have a special need for artificial light in Britain. They can also burn easily, so use a thermostat and more than one thermometer to control and monitor temperature variations in different parts of the vivarium.

Tortoises and terrapins like to bask, though you need to keep a check to make sure it doesn't get too hot in their basking areas. Red-eared terrapins and tortoises need up to 30 deg C. Terrapins also need access to water, with a ramp or a slope, so they can go easily from water to land and back. Water temperatures should be at between 22 and 24 deg C. The background daytime temperature, ie not in the basking area directly under the bulb, should be around five to eight degrees cooler than the basking temperature, and the night-time temperature around five to eight degrees cooler than the background temperature in the day. This varies according to where the species comes from, however, and it helps to learn about the environment there, and to check the day-night temperature variations in the area(s) of origin, as well as variations between summer and winter. It's also worth checking seasonal changes in hours of daylight, especially for non-tropical species. There is little variation between summer and winter hours of daylight at the tropics, but much more variation as you move towards the cooler regions.

These changes in light and temperature are especially important for those chelonians that hibernate in winter. You need to adjust light and temperature, and reduce then stop giving food if you want to prepare your chelonian for hibernation. Chelonians from cooler parts of the world are more likely to hibernate, whereas those from tropical and semi-tropical regions tend to stay awake all year. Hibernating chelonians are vulnerable if left out of doors. They cannot survive frozen water, even if they are semi-aquatic species. Terrestrials can be given a box with insulating materials (like newspaper) to hibernate in, and left in a spare room, conservatory or unused garage. Fumes can harm them if the garage is in use for parking cars.

Chelonians found in deserts and other dry areas in the wild need a dry environment in captivity, though they can get dehydrated, and should of course always have access to water. Species from jungles and aquatic environments need more humidity, and are especially prone to dehydration if subjected to central heating, with no chance to moisten their skins. You can use a mister with tepid water to boost humidity levels.

All chelonians need access to drinking water, and some species also need to be able to swim. They aren't as sensitive as fish to chlorine, but still need dechlorinated water. Chelonians will both drink from, and defecate in their bathing water, so you need to check that it's clean, and change it regularly. Tortoises can't usually swim, so keep them away from deep water, but they do benefit from a bath in shallow, lukewarm water a couple of times a week, especially if they're kept indoors and you have central heating. Ideally, tortoises should have access to outdoors, especially in the daytime, except in very cold weather. If you have a largish greenhouse, and don't use pesticides or herbicides in it, a tortoise can enjoy being outside with some protection from the cold.

You can use mixed peat and sand, sand and birdgrit, wood chippings or newspaper for substrate (bedding) for dry land species, with some shady areas with damp moss for species needing humidity. Chelonians like to dig, and some species benefit from bird sand or grit, as a source of calcium. Do clean whatever you use regularly, and use filters to keep water clean for aquatic species.

The size of the vivarium is important. It should be big enough to allow your chelonian plenty of room to move around after it has grown, so check how big it will grow. The smaller the vivarium, the more often it will need cleaning, and the greater the risk of infection, so provide as much space as you can. Likewise, the more water an aquatic species has to swim in, the lower the risk of infection, and the less you need to change the water.

Feeding

As a general rule, tortoises are mainly vegetarian, while terrapins and turtles are mainly carnivorous, though there are some semiaquatic species from the tortoise family which are omnivores.

Vegetarians like Mediterranean tortoises, should eat mainly green foods like dandelion leaves, clover, turnip greens, Chinese lettuce, and clover, as well as carrots and squash. They can eat mushrooms, or chickpeas for protein, though protein levels should be kept low. A little wholemeal bread or grain with bran can be provided for fibre. Don't put butter on their bread, or give them cheese! Vegetarian tortoises can suffer from liver trouble if they eat saturated fats, and too much protein can also cause them serious problems. They can eat fruit, such as grapes, kiwi fruit, and oranges. Vegetarians should eat fruit very sparingly, though omnivores can tolerate it better. Feed brassicas, beets and celery only very sparingly, and not often.

Vegetarian tortoises should never be fed cat or dog food, which is too high in fat and protein, and which may not have the right ratio of calcium to phosphorous, so could affect their shells.

Carnivorous species can be fed live prey, such as mealworms, and small aquatic creatures, which they like to catch themselves. Care should be taken to ensure that dead food does not pollute water. They should be fed as much as they can eat, but not every day, three times a week is plenty.

Shell deformities and high mortality rates amongst hatchlings are common in animals fed on the wrong diet, and they may also grow too fast when they are young. Andy Highfield's work in this area is well worth reading, if you plan to keep members of the tortoise family (see Further reading).

Hibernating species need special care with their diets prior to hibernation. They need to build up reserves, but also slow down before they hibernate, because their digestive system is unable to cope with any remaining food once they're hibernating. Fruit can be a particular problem, since it ferments, which can be fatal for a hibernating chelonian.

Health

Diet and temperature are crucial. Make sure the food is fresh, and in the right proportions, removing stale food at least once a day, preferably twice. Avoid the temptation of feeding unsuitable human food titbits, like bits of chocolate and crisps, even if these are consumed avidly. The right temperature is important to avoid feeding and digestive problems. Don't let the temperature drop too much at night if your reptile seems to have respiratory problems. Cold, damp conditions can cause respiratory problems, especially in chelonians from arid regions, so it helps to keep a check on humidity.

You'll need to find a vet with an understanding of reptiles while your chelonian is healthy, since reptile vets aren't always easy to find in an emergency. Chelonians will need to see a vet if they're off their food for no clear reason (such as hibernation) and appear to be losing weight, wheeze or blow bubbles, pass blood in their stools, have deformed or damaged shells, apparent inflammations, or suffer damage due to attacks from other animals. Shells can suffer damage from falls or fungal infections, and may not grow properly if your chelonian isn't fed the right diet. A chelonian that is in pain will often grind its 'teeth' (actually, they don't have teeth as such, but beaks) and that is a sign to see a vet.

Hygiene helps to avoid infections, and frequent cleaning to remove rotting food and excrement will lessen risks of infection. Hygiene is very important if you have an aquatic species, because chelonians are prone to both fungal and bacterial infections. They're especially vulnerable if they have an open wound or a shell infection. Dirty water can both cause infections, and make them worse. If your chelonian has a wound (whether or not it looks infected) or any suspected infection, clean the tank daily, as well as keeping the water clean, both by changing it and of course by using a good filtration system. Do get help from a vet if your chelonian has a wound that takes longer than a few days to start healing. There could be an infection that you can't see, which may need antibiotics and other treatment.

Young chelonians and those that are underfed or have been ill with infections, wounds or for any other reason shouldn't be allowed to hibernate, nor should recently acquired specimens. You need to weigh your chelonian before hibernation and keep checking the weight. If this goes down sharply, warm the animal up and provide water. Chelonians can suffer from dehydration during hibernation, as well as damp Very dry skin, or a sunken appearance can indicate dehydration.. You can give your chelonian a shallow bath, before drying it and putting it back to bed.

Female chelonians will sometimes become agitated, because they need to lay eggs. They need to be able to dig in order to do this, which is one reason for providing diggable substrate, or a digging area. They can lay eggs even if there is no male, though the eggs won't hatch.

Hygiene and handling

There are risks to humans from certain types of salmonella harboured by any reptiles. As a general rule, reptiles shouldn't be kept in households where the human inhabitants are very young or very old, so more susceptible to infection. Always wash your hands after handling reptiles. Don't keep them in the kitchen or dining area, or clean their housing in the kitchen - ideally, you should use an outside tap. If you have to use the bathroom to wash reptile equipment, disinfect the basin/bath with bleach afterwards.

Some chelonians are more likely to bite and are generally more aggressive than others, and if you're a novice, it is best to avoid these species. If you own a carnivorous chelonian, don't give it access to a finger, that could be mistaken for prey! As with all reptiles, try not to startle chelonians by making sudden movements close by that might appear threatening. Loud footsteps and vibrating floors can also spook them, so wear soft-soled shoes.

Give any new chelonian in your collection a chance to settle in and get used to you before you think of handling. In general, keep handling to a minimum. It may be tempting to pick up a creature with a beautiful shell, but it's stressful for the chelonian. If you do have to handle a chelonian, keep the head away from you, and keep lights dim and noise levels low, to minimise stress. Never turn a chelonian upside down. If you need to look underneath, lift it up, and look from below.

Breeding

Breeding is affected by seasonal variations, which you can mimic by adjusting the light and temperature. Chelonians that hibernate seem to need to do this in order to breed, while tropical species also seem to breed more readily if they've been relatively inactive for a few weeks. You can feed them less for a few weeks in order to encourage this period of inactivity, then feed more, and this 'stop and start' can stimulate breeding.

Hatchlings need special care with their diet to grow big and strong like their parents - the quality of the shell is especially affected by juvenile diet. Would-be breeders need to read up on chelonian nutrition and the needs of their particular species. As for how chelonians mate - well, you will just have to watch!

Further reading:

Ackerman, Lowell (1998) The Biology of Reptiles: Health Care, TFH Publications.
Ackerman, Lowell (1998) The Biology of Reptiles: Husbandry, TFH Publications.
Ackerman, Lowell (1998) The Biology, Husbandry and Health Care of Reptiles: The Biology of Reptiles, TFH Publications.
Bartlett, R.D. (1996) Turtles and Tortoises (A Complete Pet Owner's Manual), Barron's Educational Series.
Bartlett, R.D. (1999) Terrarium and Cage Construction and Care, Barron's.
Davies, Robert and Valerie Davies (1997) The Reptile and Amphibian Problem Solver: Practical and Expert Advice on Keeping Snakes, Lizards, Frogs and Other Reptiles and Amphibians Tetra Press; ISBN: 1564651940
Ferri, Vicenzo (2002) Turtles and Tortoises, Firefly Books Ltd.
Tim Halliday, Tim (Editor), and Kraig Adler (Editor) (2002) The New Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians Oxford University Press
Highfield, Andy (1994) The Tortoise Trust Guide to Tortoises and Turtles, Carapace Press.
Highfield, A.C. (1996) Practical Encyclopedia of Keeping and Breeding Tortoises and Freshwater Turtles, Carapace Press.
Highfield, A.C. (2000) The Tortoise and Turtle Feeding Manual, Carapace Press.
Klingenberg, Roger (1993) Understanding Reptile Parasites: a Basic Manual for Herpetoculturists & Veterinarians Advanced Vivarium Systems.
Kuchling, G. (1998) The Reproductive Biology of the Chelonia (Zoophysiology), Springer-Verlag Berlin and Heidelberg.
Mader, Douglas (1996) Reptile Medicine and Surgery, Saunders.
McArthur, Stuart (Editor) (1996) Veterinary Management of Tortoises and Turtles, Blackwell Science.
Orenstein, Ronald (2001) Survivors in Armor: Turtles, Tortoises and Terrapins, Key Porter Books.
Palika, Liz (2001) Turtles and Tortoises for Dummies, Hungry Minds.
Pursall, Brian (1994) Mediterranean Tortoises, TFH Publications.
Wilke, Hartmut (1998) Turtles and Tortoises (Family Pet Series), Barron's Educational Series.
Wilkinson, A., Kuenstner, K., Mueller, J., & Huber, L. (2010). Social learning in a non-social reptile (Geochelone carbonaria) Biology Letters, 6 (5), 614-616 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2010.0092.
Wilkinson, A, Sebanz, N., Mandl, I., Huber, L. (2011) No evidence of contagious yawning in the red-footed tortoise Geochelone carbonaria Current Zoology(formerly Acta Zoologica Sinica), 2011, 57(4): 477 - 484
Warwick, C., Arena, P., Lindley, S., Jessop, M., and Steedman, C., (2013) Assessing reptile welfare using behavioural criteria. In Practice 2013;35:123-131 doi:10.1136/inp.f1197
Zug, George, Vitt, Laurie J, and Janalee P. Caldwell (2001) Herpetology: An Introductory Biology of Amphibians and Reptiles, Academic Press.

Reptiles and amphibians: Snakes and lizards

See also:

You need a Dangerous Wild Animals licence to keep some reptiles in Britain.

Snakes and lizards are becoming increasingly popular as pets, and they are fascinating creatures. but you need to be practical. These are generally high-maintenance, long-lived creatures. Housing them and keeping them at the right temperature can cost a lot and take up a lot of space.

Large reptiles can defecate copiously and messily, and need a lot of cleaning. You need to have a special fascination for reptiles before buying one, enough of an obsession to put in the effort needed to keep them healthy. You'll also need back-up power in case there's a power cut, and to have reliable friends, neighbours or family members who'll help take care of your herps while you're on holiday.

Some snakes and lizards are easier than others, so if we haven't put you off yet, try starting off with the smaller and more placid types, like bearded lizards, and some of the chameleons and geckos. Green iguanas are handsome creatures, but they can grow up to six feet long, and be aggressive. And beware of being seduced by a Burmese python - it can grow up to 20 feet long!

Drool over the big beauties, but think of what you're likely to be doing over the next few years, and whether you can take your reptile with you, or rehome it if you can't. Burmese pythons can live from 18-25 years, and royal pythons nearly as long. Big pythons are not always easy to rehome, nor are large green iguanas, or Bosc (savannah) monitors, both of which can live from 10-15 years. Corn, rat, king, milk and garter snakes can live up to 15 years. Smaller lizards, like agamas, bearded dragons, green anoles, and leopard geckos are relatively easy to rehome, and anyhow, anoles are quite short-lived, from 2-5 years, while agamas and leopard geckos can live from 8-15 years, and bearded dragons from 7-10 years.

Carnivorous reptiles are not for the squeamish. If you like small, furry creatures like hamsters and gerbils, remember that they are called 'dinner' in the vocabulary of a carnivore, and you may prefer to skip the section on 'feeding' on this page.

Some novices accidentally buy one of the more challenging species, or a reptile that is illegal to keep in Britain without a dangerous wild animal licence, like a caiman. Reputable reptile specialists are the safest bet for buying healthy specimens, and they can also provide advice whether a particular reptile is suitable for you, and on care and equipment. Reptile enthusiasts sometimes sell or give away animals, though it's only safe to take one on from someone with a lot of experience whom you can trust.

It's not a good idea to buy a reptile on impulse, there's too much that could go wrong. Unfortunately, many pet reptiles die shortly after they're acquired, usually because owners haven't thought ahead before taking on one of these challenging animals. Unless you have a lot of knowledge and commitment, it's wiser to watch reptiles in their natural habitat, or in a zoo, rather than try to keep them in your home.

Snake and lizard behaviour

Snakes and lizards are not domestic animals. which means that they haven't adapted over generations to living with humans, in the way that cats and dogs have. It's important to allow them to express their natural behaviour, but this can vary a lot from one species to another. In general, wild animals are likely to be easily stressed, both by being in the wrong sort of housing, and by being handled too much by humans. This means that it's worth doing a lot of research on the habitat of any species going you are considering keeping, and trying to reproduce it. Some snakes and lizards like to burrow, for example, while others like to climb trees, or walls. Nocturnal species can be stressed by artificial lighting at night.

All reptiles tend to be active in the wild, and can travel long distances, so confining them in small spaces is likely to stress them. Likewise, they need access to somewhere to hide. If there's more than one reptile kept together, they need enough access to key resources, like a space to bask, so they can all use this resource at the same time. Reptiles kept together may attack one another if they haven't enough space, and can't get away from one another.

Reptiles will sometimes injure themselves by repeatedly trying to escape, even through glass. This is more likely to happen if they're kept in too small a space, and if their vivarium is bare, with no place to hide. Boredom may well be another factor that drives reptiles to try to escape. Space and hiding places are important to reduce stress levels and help keep reptiles healthy. Setting up an interesting landscape, with features resembling those of the species' natural habitat, may be beneficial because it's more interesting for the reptile, as well as helping to make the reptile feel safe.

Handling snakes and lizards can stress them a lot, and some are really too fragile to be handled. They're also sensitive to pheromones, and may be stressed by the smell of humans, if it is like that of another reptile. The smell of another reptile kept close by could be stressful. Reptiles may even be stressed by the smell of some cleaning products, so rinse well after cleaning a vivarium. Signs of stress include staying in just one part of the vivarium, or being extremely active, as well as panting, and aggressive postures, such as inflating the body and hissing. A reptile that's stressed by being handled may well bite.

Reptiles which appear to be relaxed when they eat, drink and explore their surroundings are probably healthier and less stressed than those which show extreme wariness or signs of aggression, though when a reptile is sluggish, this could be caused by too low a temperature.

Housing and environment.

Reptiles are cold-blooded, so they cannot regulate their temperatures. Most reptiles kept as pets come from areas with warm climates, so they need heating from a heat pad and/or other source. They also benefit from temperature variations between night and day, so that it is cooler at night, as happens in the wild, and within the vivariums. One part of the vivarium can provide basking space, with other parts a little cooler, allowing the reptile to regulate its temperature by going to a warmer or cooler place. Reptiles need access to sunlight and/or have special lamps. If they come from tropical and semi-tropical climates, they need artificial light in Britain, especially in winter. Summer nights are longer in the tropics than in the UK, and winter nights are shorter, so the provision of light for a tropical reptile should reflect tropical light patterns, rather than those of the UK.

Reptiles can burn easily, so put mesh screens on your lamps to protect your herps. You need a thermostat and more than one thermometer to control and monitor temperature variations in different parts of the vivarium. Your snake or lizard will like to bask, but can easily get roasted. Keep a check to make sure it doesn't get too hot in the basking area. How hot is too hot? Bearded lizards, green iguanas and geckos like a maximum basking temperature up to 36 deg C, and Bosc monitors, royal and burmese pythons, and water dragons like up to 32 deg C. Agamas, green anoles, and house, king and milk snakes, need less heat for basking, up to 30 deg C. Corn, rat, garter and ribbon snakes need a 28 deg C basking temperature. Climbing reptiles, like panther chameleons, need spot bulbs rather than heat pads on the ground.The background daytime temperature, ie not in the basking area directly under the bulb, should be around five to eight degrees cooler than the basking temperature, and the night-time temperature around five to eight degrees cooler than the background temperature in the day.

The best way to work out the ideal temperature ranges for your reptiles is to find out about their natural environment, the variations in temperature between seasons, and between day and night-time temperatures, trying to approximate their natural environment as much as possible. This also applies to artificial light. Remember that there's little variation between hours of daylight in summer and winter near the tropics, and far more variation in temperate regions. You can stress out a tropical reptile by giving it long days typical of temperate zones in summer, especially stressful for nocturnal reptiles.

Light and temperature variations are especially important for those species which hibernate in winter. You need to lower the temperature and cut down, then stop giving food if you want to prepare your reptile for hibernation. It's not always a good idea to let a reptile hibernate though, and the decision depends on its condition. Young reptiles and those that are underfed shouldn't be allowed to hibernate, nor should new specimens, or those that have been ill for any reason.

Appropriate humidity levels are also important. Reptiles found in deserts and other dry areas in the wild, such as agamas, bearded lizards, Bosc monitors, and green anoles, need a dry environment in captivity, though they can suffer from dehydration, and should always have access to water. Species from jungles and aquatic environments, like iguanas, panther chameleons, and water dragons, need more humidity, and are especially vulnerable to dehydration if subjected to central heating, with no chance to moisten their skins. You can use a mister with tepid water to boost humidity levels. Panther chameleons may only drink from the water you provide through misting, so it's especially important for them to mist the tank regularly, at least twice a day. Ventilation is important so keep the tank ventilated rather than keeping it closed to boost humidity.

All snakes and lizards need access to drinking water, and some species, like Bosc monitors, garter snakes, green iguanas, and Burmese and royal pythons need larger containers with bathing water. Others, such as water dragons, also need to be able to swim. Reptiles will both drink from, and defecate in their bathing water, so you need to check that it's clean, and change it regularly - and have very good friends you can trust to do this when you go on holiday.

You can use mixed peat and sand, sand and bird-grit, wood chippings or newspaper for substrate (bedding) for dry land species, with some shady areas with damp moss for species needing humidity. Some species benefit from bird sand or grit, as a source of calcium. Do clean whatever you use regularly, and use filters to keep water clean for species that like to swim.

Most reptiles need hiding places, so put plants, ceramic drain pipes, tree bark, and other cover in their vivarium for them to hide behind or under. They may suffer stress if they are exposed to view all the time, and this is especially true for new acquisitions. Let them gradually get used to their new environment. Give them some peace at first, and they'll be less likely to dart away and hide when you approach.Chameleons, anoles, and some geckos like to climb, so need height in their vivarium, and tree branches to climb on. Climbing lizards and some of the smaller snakes, like garter snakes, are very good at escaping, so it's worth keeping them in a room that's secure, as well as ensuring their vivarium is secure.

Reptiles can be stressed by having clear glass on all sides, and if they see their own reflection. You can line three sides of the vivarium, leaving the front clear so you can see them. They can also be stressed by other reptiles nearby, whether by seeing or by smelling them, so you need to keep them at a disance from one another.

The size of the vivarium is important. It should be big enough to allow your reptile plenty of room to move around after it has grown, so check how big it will grow. If you don't have much room, stick to smaller lizards, like anoles and agamas, which only reach around seven inches (18cm), leopard and day geckos which reach around 10 inches (25cm), and bearded dragons and blue tongue skinks, around 18 inches (46cm). Panther chameleons can grow to some two feet (63cm), and water dragons to three feet (92cm). Little hatchlings of larger lizards can turn into monsters, and they can grow very fast. Bosc monitors can grow to around four feet (1.22 m), while green iguanas can grow to up to six feet (1.53m), though five feet is more common. Garter, ribbon and house snakes don't usually grow much more than three feet (92cm), while royal pythons, king, milk, and corn snakes can grow to some six feet (1.53cm), rat snakes to some eight feet (2.1m), and Burmese pythons can reach a length from 16 feet (4.9m) to 20 feet (6.1m). One reason why reptiles are often abandoned in Britain is that owners have simply run out of space to house them!

Owners often run out of space because reptiles really need a room of their own. They're affected by room temperature, any pollutants in the room, including spray cleaners and cigarette smoke, and noise, especially noisy footsteps that are accompanied by vibrations. They also need lighting to suit reptiles, rather than humans who like to stay up late.

Feeding

As a general rule, iguanas are mainly vegetarian, though most lizards and snakes kept in Britain are mainly carnivorous, and there are a few lizards which are omnivores. Vegetarians, such as green iguanas, eat mainly green foods like turnip greens, Chinese lettuce, clover and dandelion leaves, with some mushrooms, legumes or chick peas for protein, and a little wholemeal bread or grain with bran for fibre. They can eat fruit, such as grapes, kiwi fruit, and oranges, but in a lower proportion than green vegetables. Feed brassicas, beets and celery only very sparingly, and not often.

Bearded dragons and blue tongue skinks are omnivores, partial to fruit and vegetables, as well as mealworms, frog, birds, and any other small creatures they can get in their mouths. Carnivores and insectivores include agamas, Bosc monitors, geckos, green anoles, and water dragons, which like mealworms, crickets and earthworms. Monitors will also eat mice, rats, birds, frogs and lizards. Water dragons follow a similar diet, and especially like their food to be alive when they eat it! Garter snakes like molluscs and fish as well as earthworms, lizards, and raw beef. Corn, rat, house, king or milk snakes, and Burmese and royal pythons, like to eat mice and rats, and large pythons are also partial to poultry. Take care not to overburden a carnivorous reptile's digestive system with too much fatty food - fat trimmings from human meals are not suitable titbits, however much your herp relishes them.

Some reptiles, such as Burmese pythons and Bosc monitors, will swallow whatever you offer them, and can easily get too fat, while you may have trouble tempting other species to eat - royal pythons are especially difficult to feed, and green iguanas can get a bit picky.

You can buy food for carnivores like 'pinkies' (newborn mice) and 'fuzzies' (older baby mice) from specialist dealers, who will also sell you other reptile food, like live crickets. Don't leave crickets and smaller lizards together unattended - crickets can eat smaller lizards, if the lizards don't get them first! You may also need to provide vitamin and calcium supplements, which again you can buy from specialist dealers. Generally, live food is preferable to 'dead' food, and the wider a range of live food you feed, the less you need to supplement with vitamins.

It's easy to overfeed reptiles, especially when it's warm and they're active. They only need feeding three times a week, giving them as much as they can eat.

Health

Diet and temperature are crucial for keeping snakes and lizards healthy. Make sure food is fresh, and in the right proportions, removing stale food at least once a day, preferably twice. Avoid the temptation of feeding your pet unsuitable human food titbits, like bits of chocolate and crisps, even if these are consumed avidly.

The right temperature is important if you want to avoid feeding and digestive problems - most reptiles tend to go off their food if they are too cold, while over-heated reptiles will be too uncomfortable to digest food properly. You need to watch the temperature at night if your reptile seems to have respiratory problems, and take especial care that it doesn't fall too much.

Hygiene, keeping the vivarium clean, and removing excrement, is also important, to avoid infections. You need to clean the vivarium at least twice a week. It's easier to do this without stressing the reptile overmuch if there's enough space in the vivarium, and somewhere for the reptile to hide. A large vivarium needs les cleaning, whereas a small vivarium can get disgusting quite fast, another reason for providing as much space as you can.

It helps to find a vet with an understanding of reptiles before your herp falls ill, since reptile vets aren't always easy to find in an emergency. Reptiles will need to see a vet if they are off their food for no clear reason (such as hibernation or shedding skin) and appear to be losing weight, wheeze or blow bubbles, pass blood in their stools, or suffer damage due to attacks from other animals.Cats and dogs and reptiles should be kept apart, even if they initially appear to get on - one or the other is likely to suffer injuries, especially if they're left together unsupervised. Hibernating species need special care to ensure they survive hibernation. Their immune system will not protect them as well while they are in deep hibernation sleep, which is why they should not be allowed to hibernate if they appear to have infections of any kind.

You're more likely to be able to find a specialist reptile vet in a city than in a rural area. This is part of the research best done before you acquire a reptile. It's worth paying a specialist vet for a consultation before you take on one of these challenging pets, to check the adequacy of the home you plan to provide. A specialist vet will have built up a lot of knowledge of what environment best suits particular species, and what pitfalls to avoid.

Hygiene and handling

There are risks to humans from certain types of salmonella and other germs harboured by reptiles. As a general rule, reptiles shouldn't be kept in households where the human inhabitants are very young or very old, so more susceptible to infection. Always wash your hands after handling reptiles. Don't keep reptiles in the kitchen or dining area, or clean their housing in the kitchen - ideally, you should use an outside tap. If you have to use the bathroom to wash reptile equipment, disinfect the basin/bath with bleach afterwards.

Some snakes and lizards are more likely to bite and are generally more aggressive than others. If you're a novice, it is best to avoid these species, and if you own one of them, it's best not to startle it by making sudden movements close to it that it could see as threatening. Young children and large, aggressive, lizards are obviously not a safe mix. Anyone handling a large lizard needs to learn lizard body language so as to recognise a threat display - puffing up, hissing and tail thrashing are generally warning signs. Green iguanas and Bosc monitors can give nasty bites, whereas bearded lizards and blue tongue skinks are safer.

Reptiles are likely to bite if they're scared, or mistake you for prey, or maybe even a rival. Handling can seriously stress out reptiles to the extent that it can make them ill. Stress affects the immune system, so a stressed reptile is more vulnerable to infection. If you really have to handle a reptile, you need to do everything possible to keep it calm, such as being quiet, keeping lights dim, moving slowly, and never holding the reptile upside down. Green iguanas may appear to get used to your handling them, but it's more considerate to leave them in peace, and handle them as little as possible.

Some of the smaller lizards, such as green anoles and geckos, should not be handled at all, since it's too easy to damage them. It's also best not to put your hands near any new reptile in your collection for at least a couple of weeks, to give it a chance to settle in and get used to you.

The safest way to transport a reptile is to persuade it to enter a container of its own accord, rather than picking it up and putting it into a box. You need patience, and food!

Breeding

All herps tend to breed more freely if you can mimic seasonal variations by adjusting hours of light and temperature. Smaller lizards and snakes tend to be easier to breed than the larger species. You may need to supervise mating encounters, to be able to separate the couple in case of fights. There's really no need to try to breed larger lizards, since there are enough unwanted large specimens in the UK. If you really want to add another large lizard to your collection, you could try adopting one from a reptile welfare organization. Alternatively, try advertising to see if anyone has a lizard they no longer have room for, though you may need to work hard to persuade any humans you share your home with that it's a good idea to fill it with large lizards!

Reptiles and amphibians: tortoises, terrapins and turtles

Reptiles and amphibians: Snakes and lizards

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